PHOTOCHEMICAL STABILITY AND ADSORPTIVE BEHAVIOR OF BIOMASS-DERIVED GRAPHENE OXIDE SYNTHESIZED FROM 4M NAOH–ACTIVATED COCONUT SHELL CARBON

Nurfadhilah Ms; Rahmat Hidayat; Yenni  Darvina; Leni Fitri

doi:10.24036/3qxey873

Authors

Nurfadhilah Muharani Ms Department of Physics, Universitas Negeri Padang Author
Rahmat Hidayat Department of Physics, Universitas Negeri Padang Author
Yenni Darvina Department of Physics, Universitas Negeri Padang Author
Leni Aziyus Fitri Department of Physics, Universitas Negeri Padang Author

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.24036/3qxey873

Keywords:

graphene oxide, coconut shell, NaOH activation, methylene blue, photochemical stability

Abstract

Coconut shell waste was transformed into graphene oxide through sequential 4M NaOH activation and modified Marcano oxidation. Our work uniquely addresses photochemical durability a persistently neglected aspect in biomass-derived adsorbent development. Structural examination via X-ray diffraction demonstrated graphitic interlayer expansion reaching 3.564 Å, accompanied by oxygen functionalities (hydroxyl, aromatic, and epoxy) confirmed through FTIR spectroscopy. Dark-condition experiments achieved 71.18% methylene blue removal (50 ppm), yet UV irradiation collapsed performance to 37.62%. We attribute this instability to photocatalytic deterioration mediated by entrapped sodium species, which generate reactive oxygen radicals that degrade functional groups essential for pollutant capture. Our investigation reveals an inherent conflict: aggressive alkali treatment enhances porosity but simultaneously introduces photo-vulnerable residues. Achieving practical solar-exposed wastewater remediation demands balanced activation protocols paired with rigorous sodium elimination. This work bridges laboratory optimization and real-world implementation by quantifying the photostability penalty of extreme activation conditions.

References

[1] F. Suciati, D. B. Aviantara, Suherman, A. Purnomo, and M. Krauss, “Chemical of concern for raising awareness to Indonesian textile sustainability,” IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci., vol. 1201, no. 1, pp. 1–13, 2023, doi: 10.1088/1755-1315/1201/1/012006.

[2] I. Khan et al., “Review on Methylene Blue: Its Properties, Uses, Toxicity and Photodegradation,” Water (Switzerland), vol. 14, no. 242, pp. 1–30, 2022, doi: 10.5040/9781501365072.12105.

[3] P. O. Oladoye, T. O. Ajiboye, E. O. Omotola, and O. J. Oyewola, “Methylene blue dye: Toxicity and potential elimination technology from wastewater,” Results Eng., vol. 16, no. 100678, pp. 1–17, 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.rineng.2022.100678.

[4] X. Li, P. Li, W. Chen, J. Ren, and W. Wu, “Preparation and Adsorption Properties of Lignin/Cellulose Hydrogel,” Materials (Basel)., vol. 16, no. 4260, pp. 1–15, 2023, doi: 10.3390/ma16124260.

[5] A. Shafique, “Removal of toxic pollutants from aqueous medium through adsorption: A review,” Desalin. Water Treat., vol. 234, pp. 38–57, 2021, doi: 10.5004/dwt.2021.27550.

[6] S. Amelia and M. Maryudi, “Application of Natural Zeolite in Methylene Blue Wastewater Treatment Process by Adsorption Method,” J. Bahan Alam Terbarukan, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 144–147, 2019, doi: 10.15294/jbat.v8i2.22480.

[7] H. V. T. Luong, T. P. Le, T. L. T. Le, H. G. Dang, and T. B. Q. Tran, “A graphene oxide based composite granule for methylene blue separation from aqueous solution: Adsorption, kinetics and thermodynamic studies,” Heliyon, vol. 10, no. 7, p. e28648, 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e28648.

[8] F. A. Arias et al., “The adsorption of methylene blue on eco-friendly reduced graphene oxide,” Nanomaterials, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 1–18, 2020, doi: 10.3390/nano10040681.

[9] L. A. Setiapraja, M. R. Sururi, and V. Rachmawati, “Potensi Limbah Biomassa Menjadi Karbon Aktif Sebagai Upaya Resources Recovery : Studi Literatur,” J. Serambi Eng., vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 7795–7800, 2023, doi: 10.32672/jse.v9i1.741.

[10] M. Paradise, E. Nursanto, and Nurkhamim, “Limbah tempurung kelapa sebagai alternatif penyerap logam berat yang ramah lingkungan dan ekonomis,” Pros. Semin. Nas. ReTII ke-15, pp. 235–238, 2020, [Online]. Available: //journal.itny.ac.id/index.php/ReTII/article/view/2045

[11] D. S. R. Wardhani, K. A. Salshabila, A. Nurmawati, W. Saputro, and E. A. Saputro, “Carbon Conversion and Energy Consumption Analysis Carbonization of Coconut Shell at High Temperature,” 4th Int. Conf. Eco-Innovation Sci. Eng. Technol., pp. 12–18, 2023, doi: 10.11594/nstp.2023.3602.

[12] I. A. W. Tan, M. O. Abdullah, L. L. P. Lim, and T. H. . Yeo, “Surface Modification and Characterization of Coconut Shell-Based Activated Carbon Subjected to Acidic and Alkaline Treatments,” J. Appl. Sci. Process Eng., vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 186–194, 2017.

[13] R. Nanda and - Ramli, “Structure Analysis Of Graphene Micro Oxide From Old Coconut Shell Waste,” Pillar Phys., vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 69–76, 2022, doi: 10.24036/12600171074.

[14] A. N. Batdjedelik and Sumardiyono, “Karbon Aktif dari Tempurung Kelapa sebagai Adsorben Pemurnian Minyak Jelantah,” J. Kim. dan Rekayasa, vol. 04, no. 02, pp. 65–70, 2024.

[15] H. K. Lee et al., “Effect of Sodium Hydroxide Concentration in Composite via Microwave-Assisted Hydrothermal Method,” Materials (Basel)., vol. 12, no. 2295, 2019.

[16] I. N. Hikmah, J. M. A. Hutapea, A. Bahtiar, N. Syakir, and Fitrilawati, “Studi Adsorpsi Methylene Blue oleh Graphene Oxide Dengan dan Tanpa Penyinaran Menggunakan Sinar UV-A,” J. Ilmu dan Inov. Fis., vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 174–181, 2022, doi: 10.24198/jiif.v6i2.39945.

[17] S. Mahich et al., “Metal-free adsorption and photodegradation methods for methylene blue dye removal using different reduction grades of graphene oxide,” Heliyon, vol. 10, no. 11, p. e31702, 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e31702.

[18] E. Sahara, N. K. Dahliani, and I. B. P. Manuaba, “PEMBUATAN DAN KARAKTERISASI ARANG AKTIF DARI BATANG LIMBAH TANAMAN GUMITIR DENGAN AKTIVATOR ZnCl2,” J. Kim., vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 174–180, 2017, doi: 10.24843/jchem.2019.v13.i01.p15.

[19] D. C. Marcano et al., “Improved Synthesis ofGraphene Oxide,” AcsNANO, vol. 4, no. 8, pp. 4806–4814, 2010, doi: 10.18632/aging.103179.

[20] M. H. Shakoor et al., “Enhancing the Photocatalytic Degradation of Methylene Blue with Graphene Oxide-Encapsulated g-C3N4/ZnO Ternary Composites,” ACS Omega, vol. 9, no. 14, pp. 16187–16195, 2024, doi: 10.1021/acsomega.3c10172.

[21] S. Fatimah, R. Ragadhita, D. F. Al Husaeni, and A. B. D. Nandiyanto, “How to Calculate Crystallite Size from X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) using Scherrer Method,” ASEAN J. Sci. Eng., vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 65–76, 2022, doi: 10.17509/ajse.v2i1.37647.

[22] E. Aliyev, V. Filiz, M. M. Khan, Y. J. Lee, C. Abetz, and V. Abetz, “Structural characterization of graphene oxide: Surface functional groups and fractionated oxidative debris,” Nanomaterials, vol. 9, no. 1180, pp. 1–15, 2019, doi: 10.3390/nano9081180.

[23] C. A. Guerrero-Fajardo, L. Giraldo, and J. C. Moreno-Piraján, “Preparation and characterization of graphene oxide for Pb(II) and Zn(II) ions adsorption from aqueous solution: Experimental, thermodynamic and kinetic study,” Nanomaterials, vol. 10, pp. 1–27, 2020, doi: 10.3390/nano10061022.

[24] J. Saleem, Z. K. B. Moghal, F. Tahir, T. Al-Ansari, and G. McKay, “Environmental Impacts and Adsorption Isotherms of Coconut Shell Activated Carbon: Effect of Acid Activation, Water, and Fuel,” C-Journal Carbon Res., vol. 11, no. 22, pp. 1–18, 2025, doi: 10.3390/c11010022.

[25] M. Arman, Z. Sabara, and T. Arief, “The Effect of Pyrolysis Temperature on Sawdust-Biomass Activated Carbon Using NaOH and NaCl Activators,” Eng. J., vol. 28, no. 8, pp. 1–11, 2024, doi: 10.4186/ej.2024.28.8.1.